Family is a basic unit of society that children encounter in their life, which encourages interaction between family members and inevitably gives an impact on one another [4]. Especially family is a proximal food environment and has an impact on food choices, dietary behaviors, and food intake of children through the mechanisms such as parent role modeling, social support, and social norms [5]. Thus, family is considered to be an important factor associated with dietary intake in children.
In this study, children had insufficient intakes of both 'Fruits' and 'Milk and Dairy products' whatever the family structure is. This result was consistent with a report of Shim et al. [24] that had used the 2001 KNHANES data to examine the dietary intake of children aged 6-18 years by household income level. Low intake of 'Fruits' and 'Milk and Dairy products' groups is common dietary intake problem in children, which can ultimately lead to health problems related to vitamin C, calcium, and riboflavin deficiency. Sufficient intake of milk and dairy products as important souses of calcium is necessary to support growth during childhood. Furthermore, adequate calcium supply to achieve higher peak bone mass is crucial during this growth period in order to maintain high bone density in later life [25]. Therefore, more rigorous approaches are needed for nutrition education and policy that aim to promote the intake of 'Fruits' and 'Milk and Dairy products' for children.
Nutrition Through The Life Cycle 5th Edition Downloadrar
With more than 3,200 carefully selected entries, the new fifth edition includes 700 new terms and more than 600 revised and expanded definitions. Terms have been meticulously chosen based on their frequency of use and importance in nutrition. All practitioners in the fields of nutrition and dietetics, as well as educators, students, and others interested in nutrition will find the updated, new edition of Nutrition and Diet Therapy Reference Dictionary a compact, handy, yet comprehensive reference tool covering almost all aspects of nutrition and dietetics.
Also, nutrient requirement estimates have been updated to provide more specific recommendations on the basis of the stage of the life cycle or level of productivity. Updates on requirement estimates are largely focused on amino acids and phosphorus, whereas trace mineral and vitamin requirements are largely unchanged. The major exception is the change in niacin requirement from total to biologically available. An addition to this edition that should be of specific interest to practicing veterinarians is a chapter on feed contaminants. Although not exhaustive, the chapter provides a nice framework for developing an initial rule-out list when evaluating suspected cases of contamination of swine feed.
To test for the general role of biofilm as an important food source for detritivorous isopods, we experimentally manipulated the amount of biofilm. We offered a primary diet source ad libitum, but we replaced the diet either after two days or after eight days, which allowed biofilm to develop on the primary diet source for different periods of time (see Figure 1B). Even after 8 days the primary food pellet was not substantially consumed indicating true ad libitum conditions with respect to primary food source for both, 2-day and 8-day groups. However, our feeding regime also resulted in a much larger amount of biofilm in the 8-day group from day two onwards, the day when the food pellet was replaced with a new one only in the 2-day treatment. We quantified the nutritional contribution of biofilm by determining the growth and survival rates of individuals of the terrestrial isopod species Porcellio scaber Latreille, 1804 that fed on three different primary diet sources, each overgrown by either low or high amount of biofilm. We also estimated microbial community composition in the gut for a subset of individuals by 16S metagenomics. We used the species P. scaber which is considered to feed on plant material and is generally described as a detritivore, though it preferentially feeds on a diet inoculated with microbes (Ihnen and Zimmer 2008). We tested the following predictions: i) a primary diet source with a large amount of biofilm improves the growth and survival of individuals compared to a primary diet source with a small amount of biofilm, and ii) a similar amount of biofilm, regardless of the primary diet source, promotes similar patterns of isopod growth and survival. Bacterial communities of biofilm are mainly shaped by the type of substrate (Li et al. 2014) and the formation of biofilm is also characterized by the proliferation of attached microbial cells and by changes in species composition (effect of time, Sauer et al. 2002). Therefore, we further predicted that iii) the primary diet source or iv) the amount of biofilm on the primary diet source, affect bacterial gut communities in terms of taxonomic composition and the relative abundance of particular taxa.
Leaf litter, which is a natural food source for detritivorous animals, is overgrown by biofilm composed of different fungal and bacterial species (Teuben and Roelofsma 1990) which can positively affect various life history traits. For example, high microbial activity of leaf litter positively affected the reproductive success and survival of various isopod species (Kautz et al. 2000; Rushton and Hassall 1983; Zimmer 2002b; Zimmer and Topp 1997). However, a positive impact of microbiota on isopod performance is not general. Some species such as Oniscus asellus may not depend on microorganisms when consuming low-quality detrital food sources (Zimmer and Topp 2000). In our study, survival did not differ between well-developed biofilm and marginal biofilm diets, but our experiment only lasted for two months, which might be too short to detect differences in survival rate based on the current sample size. Our results also show that faeces-colonizing microbiota did not increase the nutritive value of food as suggested by an earlier study (Hassall and Rushton 1982), questioning the nutritional role of coprophagy in terrestrial isopods (see also Kautz et al. 2002). Fungi are a common taxonomic group in biofilm associations and feeding on preferred fungal species increased the growth and reproduction of the Collembola species Folsomia candida and Protaphorura armata (Scheu and Simmerling 2004). We did not include fungi in our study since biodiversity of fungi is until today poorly known and the optimal DNA-based methods for its assessment are still debated (Kõljalg et al. 2013). The nutritional contribution of leaf litter biofilm has been generally attributed to the degradation of cellulose (Voriskova and Baldrian 2013; Zimmer and Topp 1997; 1999). Alternatively, the biofilm community may also provide limiting nutrients (Filipiak and Weiner 2014; Thompson et al. 2002; Zimmer and Topp 1998) or increase the consumption rate of feeding animals through indicating high-quality food sources (Zimmer et al. 2003). In our study, the greater mass increase of individuals feeding on diets with a high amount of biofilm suggests that the biofilm community improves the nutritional value of the primary food source. This may be facilitated indirectly through increased feeding rate of individuals and/or directly through digestion and utilization of microbial mass as an additional nutrient source. Thus, our results support a significant nutritional role of biofilm in the detritivore isopod Porcellio scaber (see also Zimmer and Topp 1998). 2ff7e9595c
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